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In the wake of independence in African countries, part of the urban youth of Mali incorporated cosmopolitan models in music and dress, ranging from yéyé to rock-and-roll, as well as Afro-Cuban and Afro-American influences, thereby refusing to submit to the political and cultural norms imposed by the socialist and later military government. Through their bodily appearance, these young people questioned their sexual identity, their gender relationships and their place in society, and in so doing, opposed a different ideal for society to the Malian state.