Vosse, Wilhelm <br/><br/>
Japan’s gradual shift from passive to active cyber defense: Evidence from the domestic discourse and international cooperation 

 -  2024.<br/>							 
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<br/><br/> Japan has long been one of the most active global players in defending the free and open internet and the argument that international law applies in cyberspace. Its traditional preference for defensive defense policy and its position as a defender of the liberal world order have long determined Japan’s cyber diplomacy and the way it dealt with cyber attacks domestically. However, its latest Cybersecurity Strategy (2021) and the National Security Strategy (2022) are a reflection of changed threat perceptions, the changing geostrategic order, and the domestic debates between different stakeholders, and for first time stress the need to develop active cyber defense capabilities. This article documents this journey and argues that while Japan has finally recognized cybersecurity as a central element of hybrid wars, risk aversiveness and a prevailing preference for defensive approaches are still holding Japan back from embracing offensive cyber capabilities.